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Chapter 1 Lithography
MEMS technology and applications have grown at a tremendous pace, while structural dimensions have grown smaller and smaller, reaching down even to the molecular level. With this movement have come new types of applications and rapid advances in the technologies and techniques needed to fabricate the increasingly miniature devices that are literally changing our world. A bestseller in its first edition, Fundamentals of Microfabrication, Second Edition reflects the many developments in methods, materials, and applications that have emerged recently. Renowned author Marc Madou has added exercise sets to each chapter, thus answering the need for a textbook in this field. Fundamentals of Microfabrication, Second Edition offers unique, in-depth coverage of the science of miniaturization, its methods, and materials. From the fundamentals of lithography through bonding and packaging to quantum structures and molecular engineering, it provides the background, tools, and directions you need to confidently choose fabrication methods and materials for a particular miniaturization problem. New in the Second Edition - Revised chapters that reflect the many recent advances in the field - Updated and enhanced discussions of topics including DNA arrays, microfluidics, micromolding techniques, and nanotechnology - In-depth coverage of bio-MEMs, RF-MEMs, high-temperature, and optical MEMs. - Many more links to the Web - Problem sets in each chapter
Chapter 1: Lithography
Introduction
Historical Note: Lithography’s Origins
Photolithography Overview
Introduction
Masks
Spinning Resist and Soft Baking
Exposure and Postexposure Treatment
Development
De-Scumming and Postbaking
Resists
Resist Tone
Positive Resists
Negative Resists
Permanent Resists
Glass Transition Temperature of a Resist (Tg)
Wafer Priming
Wafer Cleaning and Contaminants: The Clean Room
Resist Stripping
Wet Stripping
Dry Stripping
Critical Dimension, Overall Resolution, Line-Width
Lithographic Sensitivity and Intrinsic Resist Sensitivity (Photochemical Quantum Efficiency)
Lithographic Sensitivity
Intrinsic Sensitivity of a Resist (Photochemical Quantum Efficiency)
Resist Profiles
Overview of Profile Types
Lift-Off Profile
Contrast and Experimental Determination of Lithographic Sensitivity
Resolution in Photolithography
Introduction
Resolution in Contact and Proximity Printing (Shadow Printing)
Contact Printing
Proximity Printing
Resolution with Self-Aligned Masks
Projection Printing
Introduction
Types of Projection Methods
Modulation Transfer Function
Critical MTF Values
Mathematical Expressions Governing Resolution in Projection Printing
Depth of Focus
Mask Alignment in Projection Printing
Fiducial Marks
Alignment in Miniaturized Devices
Mathematical Expression for Resist Profiles
Planarization
Introduction
Planarization Strategies
Photolithography Resolution Enhancement Technology
Introduction
Strategies for Improved Resolution through Improved Resist Performance
Chemically Amplified Resists
Introduction
tBOC Based Resists
SU-8 Resist
Summary
Image Reversal
Introduction
Rohm and Haas Resist
Antireflective Coatings –Thin Film Interference Effects
Thin Film Imaging
Thin Film Imaging in Single Layer Resist—Top Surface Imaging
Multilayer Resist Thin Film Imaging
Strategies for Improved Resolution through Improved Mask Technology
Background
Phase-Shifting Masks
Grey-Tone Masks and Tapered Structures
Beyond Moore’s Law
Introduction
Moore’s Law
Kurzweil
Next Generation Lithographies
Introduction
Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography
X-Ray Lithography
Introduction
Major Features of X-Ray Lithography
LIGA
X-Ray Resists
X-Ray Masks
Why Use a Synchrotron to Generate X-Rays?
Charged-Particle-Beam Lithography
Introduction
Electron-Beam Lithography
Overview
Electron-Beam Resists
Electron Emission Sources
Micromachined Electron Emission Sources
Scattering with Angular Limitation Projection Electron Beam Lithography (SCALPEL)
Ion-Beam Lithography
Introduction
Focused Ion Beam and Deep Ion Beam Lithography
Ion Projection Lithography
Comparison of Ion Beam Lithography with E-Beam Lithography
Emerging Lithography Technologies
Introduction
Scanning Probe Lithography
STM/AFM Background
Scanning Probe Lithography
Introduction
Modes of Pattern Generation in Scanning Probe Lithography
Atom Lithography or Mechanosynthesis
Very Thin Resist Layers
Introduction
Langmuir-Blodgett Resists
Self-Assembled Monolayers
Ultrathin Film Resist Layers
Soft Lithography
Introduction
Micro Contact Printing
Micro-Transfer Molding
Micromolding in Capillaries
Micro-Replica Molding
Soft Lithography Summary
3D Lithography Methods
Introduction
Holographic Lithography
Stereolithography/Micro-Photoforming Process
Lithography on Nonplanar Substrates
Examples
1.1 Protein Patterning
1.2 Inclined LIGA Walls
1.3 PDMS Based CDs
Problems